From Myth to Metric: Apolaki Caldera, Compounding Geohazards, and the Case for an Integrated Early Warning Framework in the Philippines
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65166/zv9wg323Keywords:
Apolaki Caldera, Philippine Rise geohazards, earthquake early warning systems, integrated volcanic monitoring, compounding geohazard exposure, Philippine tectonic hazard, science communication and geological mythAbstract
A popular narrative circulating in Philippine public discourse for several decades asserts that the Philippines sits atop or within the world's largest underwater caldera — a claim that conflates legitimate frontier science with decades of distortion and amplification. This paper subjects that narrative to systematic scholarly examination and advances a corrective, evidence-grounded account of both the scientific hypothesis it misrepresents and the genuine geohazard complexity it obscures. The Apolaki Caldera, proposed by Barretto, Wood, and Milsom in a 2020 Marine Geology publication, refers to a morphostructural interpretation of a large circular depression on the crest of the Philippine Rise — an Eocene Large Igneous Province located approximately 250 km offshore in deep oceanic crust. The hypothesis is supported by multibeam bathymetric and gravimetric evidence consistent with a collapse caldera of approximately 150 km in diameter, but it remains unverified by the independent seismic profiling, direct rock sampling, and high-precision geochronology that confirmation at this scale would require. The structure is ancient, extinct, and poses no documented active volcanic hazard to the Philippine population. The paper employs an integrative thematic review design across five literature domains — caldera science, Philippine Rise geology, Philippine geohazard systems, international earthquake early warning architectures, and volcano monitoring frameworks — to accomplish four objectives: evaluating the Apolaki hypothesis against current evidence; accurately characterizing Philippine compounding geohazard exposure; assessing the structural gap between Philippine early warning capacity and international performance benchmarks; and proposing a conceptual framework for integrated geohazard early warning suited to Philippine institutional and geographic conditions. The analysis finds that the Philippines' verified geohazard profile — doubly vergent subduction systems, the Philippine Fault Zone, 24 classified active volcanoes, and historically documented cascading hazard events — is independently severe and demands a substantially more integrated, performance-accountable, and publicly communicated early warning architecture than the current literature documents. Recommendations are directed at the Philippine geoscience research community, national disaster risk reduction agencies, and science communication practitioners.
Downloads
References
Acocella, V., Cifelli, F., & Funiciello, R. (2000). Analogue models of collapse calderas and resurgent domes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 104, 81. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(00)00201-8
Aguirre-Ayerbe, I., Merino, M. J., Aye, S. L., Dissanayake, R., Shadiya, F., & Lopez, C. (2020). An evaluation of availability and adequacy of Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems in Asian countries: A baseline study. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 49, 101749.
Aguirre-Díaz, G. J., Tristán-González, M., Gutiérrez-Palomares, I., Martí, J., López-Martínez, M., Labarthe-Hernández, G., & Nieto-Obregón, J. (2021). Graben type calderas: The Bolaños case, Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 417, 107315.
Alcántara-Ayala, I., Lucatello, S., & Rodríguez-Velázquez, D. (2023). Can we pull resilience from the rubble? Experiencing earthquakes in Mexico City. Natural Hazards, 120(10), 9163.
Arpa, M. B., Patiño, L., & Vogel, T. A. (2008). The basaltic to trachydacitic upper Diliman Tuff in Manila: Petrogenesis and comparison with deposits from Taal and Laguna Calderas. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 177(4), 1020.
Atando, R. B., & Sugawara, D. (2023). Differences in the earthquake preparedness of low- and high-income countries. Natural Hazards, 120(2), 1951.
Aurelio, M., Manahan, A., Catugas, S. D., Palma, M. D., & Calma, A. M. (2025). Beware quiet segments of the Philippine Fault. Temblor. https://doi.org/10.32858/temblor.364
Barretto, J. A. L., Wood, R., & Milsom, J. (2019). Benham Rise unveiled: Morphology and structure of an Eocene large igneous province in the West Philippine Basin. Marine Geology, 419, 106052.
Bato, M. G. (2018). Towards assimilation of deformation measurements in volcanology [Doctoral dissertation]. HAL.
Becker, J., Potter, S., Vinnell, L. J., Nakayachi, K., McBride, S. K., & Johnston, D. (2020). Earthquake early warning in Aotearoa New Zealand: A survey of public perspectives. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 7(1).
Bencard, A., Lillemose, J., & Bjerregaard, M. K. (2022). The world is in you: Documentation, reflections, lessons. Technical University of Denmark.
Biass, S., Reyes-Hardy, M.-P., Gregg, C. E., Maio, L. S. D., Domínguez, L., Frischknecht, C., Bonadonna, C., & Pérez, N. M. (2024). The spatiotemporal evolution of compound impacts from lava flow and tephra fallout on buildings. Bulletin of Volcanology, 86(2).
Boué, A. (2015). Data mining and volcanic eruption forecasting [Doctoral dissertation]. HAL.
Bretton, R., Ciolli, S., Cristiani, C., Gottsmann, J., Christie, R. C., & Aspinall, W. (2018). Volcanic unrest simulation exercises: Checklists and guidance notes. In Advances in volcanology (p. 271). Springer.
Cadiz, N. R. (2018). UP NOAH in building resilient Philippines: Multi-hazard and risk mapping for the future. Procedia Engineering, 212, 1018.
Casadevall, T. J., Tormey, D., & Roberts, J. (2019). World Heritage Volcanoes: Classification, gap analysis, and recommendations for future listings. IUCN.
Chandrakumar, C., Prasanna, R., Stephens, M., & Tan, M. L. (2022). Earthquake early warning systems based on low-cost ground motion sensors: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in Sensors, 3.
Chong, R. M. B., Tangunan, D., Toyado, D. M., & Elegado, A. F. K. (2025). Evolving disaster resilience in the Philippines. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 121, 105415.
Chovanec, D., Kollár, B., Halúsková, B., Kubás, J., Pawęska, M., & Ristvej, J. (2025). A component-based approach to early warning systems: A theoretical model. Applied Sciences, 15(6), 3218.
Cochran, E. S., Aagaard, B., Allen, R. M., et al. (2018). Research to improve ShakeAlert earthquake early warning products and their utility. USGS Open-File Report 2018–1131.
Cole, J., Milner, D. M., & Spinks, K. D. (2004). Calderas and caldera structures: A review. Earth-Science Reviews, 69, 1.
Colombelli, S., Zollo, A., Carotenuto, F., et al. (2025). The first earthquake early warning system for the high-speed railway in Italy. EGUsphere.
DeGroot, R. M., McBride, S. K., Vinci, M., et al. (2025). ShakeAlert® — Communication, education, outreach and technical engagement strategic vision. USGS Circular 1561.
Dempsey, D., Kempa-Liehr, A. W., Ardid, A., et al. (2022). Evaluation of short-term probabilistic eruption forecasting at Whakaari, New Zealand. Bulletin of Volcanology, 84(10).
Dohmen, K., Blum, P., Braun, A., & Fernández-Steeger, T. M. (2025). Landslide-triggered tsunamis — A review. Natural Hazards, 121(19), 22341.
Domingo, S., & Manejar, A. J. (2019). Disaster preparedness and local governance in the Philippines. Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
Donovan, A., & Oppenheimer, C. (2019). Volcanoes on borders: A scientific and (geo)political challenge. Bulletin of Volcanology, 81(5).
Edmonds, M., Oppenheimer, C., Pyle, D. M., Herd, R. A., & Thompson, G. M. (2003). SO2 emissions from Soufrière Hills Volcano and their relationship to conduit permeability. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 124, 23.
Elias, T., Kern, C., Horton, K. A., Sutton, A. J., & Garbeil, H. (2018). Measuring SO2 emission rates at Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii. Frontiers in Earth Science, 6.
Ende, M. van den, Trabattoni, A., Baillet, M., & Rivet, D. (2024). An analysis of the dynamic range of Distributed Acoustic Sensing for Earthquake Early Warning. EarthArXiv.
Fearnley, C. J., & Beaven, S. (2018). Volcano alert level systems: Managing the challenges of effective volcanic crisis communication. Bulletin of Volcanology, 80(5).
Fearnley, C. J., Bird, D. K., Haynes, K., McGuire, W., & Jolly, G. (Eds.). (2018). Observing the volcano world. Springer.
Flood, T. P., Vogel, T. A., Arpa, M. B., Patino, L. C., Cantane, S. G., & Arcilla, C. A. (2004). Silicic magmas erupted from the Laguna de Bay Caldera, Macolod Corridor, Luzon, Philippines. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts.
Forni, F., Phua, M., Bernard, O., et al. (2023). Remobilization and eruption of an upper crustal cumulate mush at the Singkut caldera (North Sumatra, Indonesia). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 445, 107971.
Fouquet, Y., Pelleter, E., Konn, C., et al. (2018). Volcanic and hydrothermal processes in submarine calderas: The Kulo Lasi example (SW Pacific). Ore Geology Reviews, 99, 314.
Gajigan, A. P., Yñiguez, A. T., Villanoy, C., et al. (2018). Diversity and community structure of marine microbes around the Benham Rise underwater plateau. PeerJ, 6.
Galetto, F., Acocella, V., & Caricchi, L. (2017). Caldera resurgence driven by magma viscosity contrasts. Nature Communications, 8(1).
Galgana, G. A., Hamburger, M., McCaffrey, R. J., Bacolcol, T., & Aurelio, M. (2007). Modeling the Philippine Mobile Belt. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts.
Galina, N. A., & Shapiro, N. M. (2024). Source mechanisms of deep long period earthquakes beneath the Klyuchevskoy volcanic group (Kamchatka, Russia). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 448, 108049.
Geshi, N. (2018). Structure and development of collapse calderas. Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi), 127(2), 175.
Geyer, A., & Martí, J. (2008). The new worldwide collapse caldera database (CCDB). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 175(3), 334.
Geyer, A., & Martí, J. (2014). A short review of our current understanding of the development of ring faults during collapse caldera formation. Frontiers in Earth Science, 2.
Given, D. D., Cochran, E. S., Heaton, T. H., Hauksson, E., Allen, R., Hellweg, P., Vidale, J. E., & Bodin, P. (2014). Technical implementation plan for the ShakeAlert production system. USGS Open-File Report 2014–1097.
Given, D. D., Allen, R. M., Baltay, A., et al. (2018). Revised technical implementation plan for the ShakeAlert system. USGS Open-File Report 2018–1155.
Global volcanic hazards and risk. (2016). Choice Reviews Online, 53(8), 53.
Got, J., Amitrano, D., Stefanou, I., Brothelande, É., & Peltier, A. (2019). Damage and strain localization around a pressurized shallow-level magma reservoir. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth, 124(2), 1443.
Gottsmann, J., Komorowski, J., & Barclay, J. (2017). Volcanic unrest and pre-eruptive processes: A hazard and risk perspective. In Advances in volcanology. Springer.
Hasegawa, T., Nakagawa, M., Kamiyama, H., & Yamamoto, A. (2022). Geological, geophysical, and geochemical constraints on the time-space evolution of Akan composite caldera, Hokkaido, Japan. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10.
Hayer, C., Burton, M., Ferrazzini, V., Esse, B., & Muro, A. D. (2023). Unusually high SO2 emissions from Piton de la Fournaise volcano during the April 2020 eruption. Bulletin of Volcanology, 85(4).
Hayes, G. P., Meyers, E. K., Dewey, J. W., et al. (2017). Tectonic summaries of magnitude 7 and greater earthquakes from 2000 to 2015. USGS Open-File Report 2016–1192.
Hidayat, D., Baloloy, A. V., Laguerta, E. P., Valerio, R., & Marcial, S. S. (2011). Developing geophysical monitoring at Mayon volcano. AGU Fall Meeting.
Howe, T. M., Christopher, T., Moune, S., Tuffen, H., & Schiavi, F. (2025). Melt inclusion bubbles provide new insights into crystallisation depths at Soufrière Hills Volcano. Frontiers in Earth Science, 12.
Hutchings, S. J., & Mooney, W. D. (2024). Seismotectonics of the Philippine and Taiwan subduction systems and implications for seismic hazards. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 25(6).
Innocenti, F. D. (2023). The difficult relationship between science, citizen science, and mass communication. Frontiers in Sustainability, 4.
Irawan, D. E., Abraham, J., Tennant, J., & Pourret, O. (2021). The need for a new set of measures to assess the impact of research in earth sciences in Indonesia. European Science Editing, 47.
Isaia, R., Troiano, A., Giuseppe, M. G. D., et al. (2025). 3D magnetotelluric imaging of a transcrustal magma system beneath the Campi Flegrei caldera, southern Italy. Communications Earth & Environment, 6(1).
Iuchi, K., Jibiki, Y., Solidum, R. U., & Santiago, R. (2018). Natural hazards governance in the Philippines. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science.
Jenkins, S. F., Wilson, T., Magill, C., et al. (2015). Volcanic ash fall hazard and risk. In Cambridge University Press eBooks. Cambridge University Press.
Jin, L., Liu, J., Li, S., Suo, Y., Wang, P., & Zhu, J. (2025). Gravity-derived crustal thickness heterogeneity in the Philippine Archipelago. Tectonophysics, 921, 231059.
Jousset, P., Currenti, G., Murphy, S., et al. (2024). Fiber optic sensing for volcano monitoring and imaging volcanic processes. EarthArXiv.
Kaneda, Y. (2014). DONET: A real-time monitoring system for megathrust earthquakes and tsunamis around southwestern Japan. Oceanography, 27(2), 103.
Kodera, Y., Hayashimoto, N., Tamaribuchi, K., et al. (2021). Developments of the nationwide earthquake early warning system in Japan after the 2011 Mw9.0 Tohoku-Oki earthquake. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9.
Kongsager, R. (2019). Speed bump or accelerator: How will climate change affect anthropogenic hazards? Roskilde University.
Kutcher, A. M., & LeBaron, V. (2022). A simple guide for completing an integrative review. Journal of Professional Nursing, 40, 13.
Lara, P., Tavera, H., Blétery, Q., Ampuero, J., Inza, A., Portugal, D., Orihuela, B., & Meza, F. (2024). Implementation of the Peruvian earthquake early warning system. EarthArXiv.
Lim, H. R., Lim, M. B., & Camposano, R. L. E. (2022). Modeling evacuation behavior of households affected by the eruption of Taal volcano. Transportation Research Part D, 109, 103393.
Lior, I., Rivet, D., Ampuero, J., et al. (2022). Harnessing distributed acoustic sensing for earthquake early warning: Magnitude estimation and ground motion prediction. EarthArXiv.
Liu, B., Siu, Y. L., & Mitchell, G. (2016). Hazard interaction analysis for multi-hazard risk assessment. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 16(2), 629.
Lonkila, A., & Kaljonen, M. (2021). Promises of meat and milk alternatives: An integrative literature review. Agriculture and Human Values, 38(3), 625.
Loughlin, S., Brown, S., Jenkins, S. F., et al. (2015). Global volcanic hazards and risk. Cambridge University Press.
Lowenstern, J. B. (2014). Protocols for geologic hazards response by the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. USGS Circular 1351.
Lowenstern, J. B., Ewert, J. W., & Lockhart, A. B. (2021). Strengthening local volcano observatories through global collaborations. Bulletin of Volcanology, 84(1).
Lüthje, C. (2015). Science communication between risk and (un)certainty. Journal of Science Communication, 14(1).
Lux, A., Smith, D. E., Böse, M., et al. (2024). Status and performance of the ShakeAlert earthquake early warning system: 2019–2023. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 114(6), 3041.
MacQueen, P., Gottsmann, J., Pritchard, M. E., et al. (2021). Dissecting a zombie: Joint analysis of density and resistivity models at Uturuncu Volcano, Bolivia. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9.
Manville, V., Johnston, D., Stammers, S., & Scott, B. J. (2000). Comparative preparedness in New Zealand and the Philippines for volcanic eruptions. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 33(4), 445.
Marchezini, V. (2020). "What is a sociologist doing here?" People-centered approaches in warning implementation. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 11(2), 218.
Martí, J. (2019). Las Cañadas caldera, Tenerife, Canary Islands: A review, or the end of a long volcanological controversy. Earth-Science Reviews, 196, 102889.
Martinez-Villegas, M. M., Solidum, R. U., Saludadez, J. A., Pidlaoan, A. C., & Lamela, R. C. (2021). Moving for safety: A qualitative analysis of evacuation response during the 2014 Mayon Volcano eruption. Journal of Applied Volcanology, 10(1).
Martinez-Villegas, M. M., Reniva, P. D., Sanico, L. R. D., et al. (2022). Perspectives on the 12 January 2020 Taal Volcano eruption. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10.
Massin, F., Strauch, W., Andrews, C. J., Böse, M., & Ramírez, J. (2018). Building EEW in Nicaragua: Performance and perspectives. Revista Geográfica de América Central, 89.
Massiot, C., Adam, L., Boyd, E. S., et al. (2024). CALDERA: A scientific drilling concept at Okataina Volcanic Centre, Aotearoa New Zealand. Scientific Drilling, 33(1), 67.
Matoza, R. S., & Roman, D. C. (2022). One hundred years of advances in volcano seismology and acoustics. Bulletin of Volcanology, 84(9).
Maxwell, K., Westphal, H., & Rovere, A. (2021). A standardized database of Last Interglacial sea-level indicators in Southeast Asia. Earth System Science Data, 13(9), 4313.
McGuire, J. J., Ulberg, C. W., Lux, A., et al. (2025). ShakeAlert® Version 3: Expected performance in large earthquakes. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 115(2), 533.
Medel, K. B., Kousar, R., & Masood, T. (2020). A collaboration–resilience framework for disaster management supply networks: A case study of the Philippines. Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management, 10(4), 509.
Melosantos, A. A., Soriano, K. V. C., Alcones, P. C. M., et al. (2015). Performance of broadband seismic network of the Philippines. Journal of Disaster Research, 10(1), 8.
Michon, L., Villeneuve, N., Catry, T., & Merle, O. (2008). How summit calderas collapse on basaltic volcanoes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 184, 138.
Mileti, D. S., & Sorensen, J. H. (1990). Communication of emergency public warnings: A social science perspective. U.S. Department of Energy.
Milsom, J. (2023). East Asian analogues for early Alpine orogenesis. Swiss Journal of Geosciences, 116(1).
Minson, S. E., Baltay, A., Cochran, E. S., et al. (2019). The limits of earthquake early warning accuracy and best alerting strategy. Scientific Reports, 9(1).
Minson, S. E., Cochran, E. S., Saunders, J. K., et al. (2022). What to expect when you are expecting earthquake early warning. Geophysical Journal International, 231(2), 1386.
Minson, S. E., Cochran, E. S., Wu, S., & Noda, S. (2021). A framework for evaluating earthquake early warning for an infrastructure network. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9.
Mitchell, N. C. (2001). Transition from circular to stellate forms of submarine volcanoes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106, 1987.
Mori, N., Satake, K., Cox, D. T., et al. (2022). Giant tsunami monitoring, early warning and hazard assessment. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 3(9), 557.
Mouginis-Mark, P. J., & Rowland, S. K. (2001). The geomorphology of planetary calderas. Geomorphology, 37, 201.
Mulia, I. E., & Satake, K. (2021). Synthetic analysis of the efficacy of the S-net system in tsunami forecasting. Earth Planets and Space, 73(1).
Muro, A. D., Schwarzlmueller, F., Kueppers, U., Heap, M. J., & Dingwell, D. B. (2021). Petrophysical characterisation of volcanic ejecta. Volcanica, 4(1), 41.
Nanjo, K. Z., Yamamoto, Y., Ariyoshi, K., et al. (2023). Earthquake detection capacity of Dense Oceanfloor Network system for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET). Research Square.
Navarro, K. I. A., & McKinnon, M. (2020). Challenges of communicating science: Perspectives from the Philippines. Journal of Science Communication, 19(1).
Nawanao, L. P., & Ramos, N. T. (2023). Frontal wedge variations and controls of submarine landslides in the Negros–Sulu Trench System, Philippines. Frontiers in Earth Science, 11.
Nelson, A. R. (2000). Multiple large earthquakes in the past 1500 years on a fault in Metropolitan Manila, the Philippines. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 90(1), 73.
Newhall, C. (2021). Volcanic risk mitigation that could have been derailed but wasn't: Pinatubo, Philippines 1991. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9.
Nguyen, C.-N., Huang, B., Lee, T., et al. (2023). Slab tearing and lithospheric structures in Luzon island, Philippines. Frontiers in Earth Science, 11.
Oppenheimer, C., Scaillet, B., & Martin, R. S. (2011). Sulfur degassing from volcanoes: Source conditions, surveillance, plume chemistry and Earth system impacts. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 73(1), 363.
Padilla, L., Dryhurst, S., Hosseinpour, H., & Kruczkiewicz, A. (2021). Multiple hazard uncertainty visualization challenges and paths forward. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.
Pallister, J. S., Papale, P., Eichelberger, J. C., et al. (2019). Volcano observatory best practices (VOBP) workshops — A summary of findings and best-practice recommendations. Journal of Applied Volcanology, 8(1).
Parolai, S., Boxberger, T., Pilz, M., et al. (2017). Assessing earthquake early warning using sparse networks in developing countries: Case study of the Kyrgyz Republic. Frontiers in Earth Science, 5.
Pérez, N. M., Melián, G. V., Hernández, P. A., et al. (2022). Diffuse CO2 degassing precursors of the January 2020 eruption of Taal volcano, Philippines. Scientific Reports, 12(1).
Petrinovic, I. A., Martí, J., Aguirre-Díaz, G. J., et al. (2010). The Cerro Aguas Calientes caldera, NW Argentina. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 194, 15.
Potter, S., Jolly, G., Neall, V. E., Johnston, D., & Scott, B. J. (2014). Communicating the status of volcanic activity: Revising New Zealand's volcanic alert level system. Journal of Applied Volcanology, 3(1).
Pramono, S., Utama, M. R. J., Swastikarani, R., et al. (2023). Implementation early design of prototype EEWS development in Indonesia. Research Square.
Pritchard, M. E., Poland, M. P., Reath, K., et al. (2022). Optimizing satellite resources for the global assessment and mitigation of volcanic hazards. USGS Scientific Investigations Report.
Rahman, P., & Mehnaz, S. (2024). International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR). SSRN Electronic Journal.
Ramirez, A. B. G., Ramos, N. T., Nawanao, L. P., et al. (2022). An earthquake-triggered submarine mass failure mechanism for the 1994 Mindoro tsunami in the Philippines. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10.
Ramos, N. T., Tsutsumi, H., & Perez, J. S. (2009). Evidence of large prehistoric megathrust earthquakes along the Manila and Philippine trenches. AGU Fall Meeting.
Rea, R., Kagawa, T., & Zollo, A. (2025). Comparative evaluation of impact-based and hybrid approaches for real time earthquake shaking prediction. Scientific Reports, 15(1).
Reyes, P. J. D., Bornas, M. A., Dominey-Howes, D., et al. (2017). A synthesis and review of historical eruptions at Taal Volcano, Southern Luzon, Philippines. Earth-Science Reviews, 177, 565.
Ribó, M., Cronin, S. J., Garvin, J. B., et al. (2025). Time-series insights of the geomorphologic changes of the Hunga submarine caldera. Research Square.
Rimando, R. E., & Knuepfer, P. L. K. (2024). Tectonic control of aseismic creep and potential for induced seismicity along the West Valley Fault in southeastern Metro Manila. GeoHazards, 5(4), 1172.
Rimando, R. E., & Knuepfer, P. L. K. (2025). Earthquake history and rupture extents from morphology of fault scarps along the Valley Fault System (Philippines). GeoHazards, 6(2), 23.
Rimando, R. E., Kurita, K., & Kinugasa, Y. (2022). Spatial and temporal variation of aseismic creep along the dilational jog of the West Valley Fault, Philippines. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10.
Roche, O., Druitt, T. H., & Merle, O. (2000). Experimental study of caldera formation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, 395.
Rodolfo, K. S., Lagmay, A. M. F. A., Eco, R. C., et al. (2019). Super Typhoon Bopha and the Mayo River debris-flow disaster, Mindanao, Philippines, December 2012. InTech.
Rojas, S. M., Rosana, A. R. R., Montecillo, A. D., et al. (2019). Draft genome sequences of six bacteria isolated from the Benham Bank, Philippine Rise. Microbiology Resource Announcements, 8(29).
Ruth, D., & Costa, F. (2021). A petrological and conceptual model of Mayon volcano (Philippines). Bulletin of Volcanology, 83(10).
Sacchi, M., Pepe, F., Corradino, M., Insinga, D., Molisso, F., & Lubritto, C. (2014). The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff caldera offshore the Campi Flegrei. Marine Geology, 354, 15.
Sacchi, M., Natale, G. D., Spiess, V., et al. (2019). A roadmap for amphibious drilling at the Campi Flegrei caldera. Scientific Drilling, 26, 29.
Schlesinger, A., Kukovica, J., Rosenberger, A., et al. (2021). An earthquake early warning system for southwestern British Columbia. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9.
Sevilla, W. I., Jumawan, L. A., Clarito, C. J., et al. (2020). Improved 1D velocity model and deep long-period earthquakes in Kanlaon Volcano, Philippines. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 393, 106793.
Siebert, L., & Reid, M. E. (2023). Lateral edifice collapse and volcanic debris avalanches. Bulletin of Volcanology, 85(11).
Solana, C., & Kilburn, C. R. J. (2022). Translating research into operational procedures for reducing the risk from volcanic eruptions. Bulletin of Volcanology, 84(6).
Suárez, G. (2022). The Seismic Early Warning System of Mexico (SASMEX): A retrospective view and future challenges. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10.
Tajima, F., & Hayashida, T. (2018). Earthquake early warning: What does "seconds before a strong hit" mean? Progress in Earth and Planetary Science, 5(1).
Tamburello, G., Kantzas, E. P., McGonigle, A. J. S., Aiuppa, A., & Giudice, G. (2010). UV camera measurements of fumarole field degassing (La Fossa crater, Vulcano Island). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 199, 47.
Tan, M. L., Becker, J., Stock, K., et al. (2022). Understanding the social aspects of earthquake early warning: A literature review. Frontiers in Communication, 7.
Thelen, W. A., Hotovec-Ellis, A. J., & Bodin, P. (2016). Feasibility study of earthquake early warning (EEW) in Hawaii. USGS Open-File Report 2016–1172.
Tierz, P., Woodhouse, M., Phillips, J. C., et al. (2017). A framework for probabilistic multi-hazard assessment of rain-triggered lahars. Frontiers in Earth Science, 5.
Tsutsumi, H., & Perez, J.-L. (2011). Along strike variation of seismic behavior of the Philippine fault. AGU Fall Meeting.
Vaiciulyte, S., Novelo-Casanova, D. A., Husker, A., & Garduño-González, A. B. (2022). Population response to earthquakes and earthquake early warnings in Mexico. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 72, 102854.
Velazquez, O., Pescaroli, G., Cremen, G., & Galasso, C. (2020). A review of the technical and socio-organizational components of earthquake early warning systems. Frontiers in Earth Science, 8.
Vera, A., Pedrosa, M., Largo, F. F., Chua, F. S., & Botona, R. (2018). Earthquake impact assessment using REDAS software in selected barangays in Region XI. Philippine E-Journals, 24(2), 1.
Verolino, A., Wee, S. F., Jenkins, S. F., Costa, F., & Switzer, A. D. (2023). SEATANI: Hazards from seamounts in Southeast Asia, Taiwan, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Research Square.
Vinnell, L. J., Tan, M. L., Prasanna, R., & Becker, J. (2023). Knowledge, perceptions, and behavioral responses to earthquake early warning in Aotearoa New Zealand. Frontiers in Communication, 8.
Wannewitz, S., Hagenlocher, M., & Garschagen, M. (2016). Development and validation of a sub-national multi-hazard risk index for the Philippines. GI_Forum, 4(1), 133.
White, J. D. L., Bryan, S. E., Ross, P., Self, S., & Thórdarson, T. (2018). Physical volcanology of continental large igneous provinces: Update and review. The Geological Society of London.
Winson, A., Costa, F., Newhall, C. G., & Woo, G. (2014). An analysis of the issuance of volcanic alert levels during volcanic crises. Journal of Applied Volcanology, 3(1).
Witze, A. (2017). The fight to save thousands of lives with sea-floor sensors. Nature, 546(7659), 466.
Wu, Y. (2002). A virtual subnetwork approach to earthquake early warning. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 92(5), 2008.
Wu, Y., Chen, D.-Y., Lin, T.-L., et al. (2013). A high-density seismic network for earthquake early warning in Taiwan based on low cost sensors. Seismological Research Letters, 84(6), 1048.
Wu, Y., Hsiao, N., Lee, W. H. K., Teng, T., & Shin, T. (2007). State of the art and progress in the earthquake early warning system in Taiwan. In P. Gasparini, G. Manfredi, & J. Zschau (Eds.), Earthquake early warning systems (p. 283). Springer.
Xu, Y., Wang, J. P., Wu, Y., & Kuo-Chen, H. (2016). Reliability assessment on earthquake early warning: A case study from Taiwan. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 92, 397.
Yamada, M., Xiao, Y., Hayashimoto, N., & Noguchi, K. (2025). Performance of the earthquake early warning system for the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake. Earth Planets and Space, 77(1).
Ybañez, R. L., Romaguera, P. J., Malamud, B. D., & Lagmay, A. M. F. A. (2020). A multi-hazard interactions framework for the Philippines. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts.
Yin, J., Soto, M. A., Ramírez, J. A., et al. (2023). Real-data testing of distributed acoustic sensing for offshore earthquake early warning. The Seismic Record, 3(4), 269.
Yu, S.-B., Hsu, Y., Bacolcol, T., Yang, C., Tsai, Y.-B., & Solidum, R. U. (2011). Present-day crustal deformation along the Philippine Fault in Luzon, Philippines. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 65, 64.
Zhang, M., Qiao, X., Seyler, B. C., et al. (2021). Brief communication: Effective earthquake early warning systems: Appropriate messaging and public awareness roles. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 21(10), 3243.
Zhang, T., Li, P., Shang, L., et al. (2022). Identification and evolution of tectonic units in the Philippine Sea Plate. China Geology, 5, 1.
Zhu, Y., Ji, Y., Zhu, W., et al. (2024). Juxtaposed slab dehydration, decarbonation and seismotectonic variation beneath the Philippine subduction zone. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 26966.
Zlotnicki, J., Sasai, Y., Johnston, M. J. S., et al. (2018). The 2010 seismovolcanic crisis at Taal Volcano (Philippines). Earth Planets and Space, 70(1).
Zlotnicki, J., Sasai, Y., Toutain, J., et al. (2008). Combined electromagnetic, geochemical and thermal surveys of Taal volcano (Philippines) during 2005–2006. Bulletin of Volcanology, 71(1), 29.
Zollo, A., Rea, R., Colombelli, S., & Elia, L. (2024). Retrospective performance analysis of a shaking-forecast based early-warning method for the 2023 Türkiye-Syria Mw 7.8 earthquake. Research Square.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Ramon George Atento, Dr. Leah F. Quinto, Cherry Ann Marie Espelita (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright of their articles but grant the International Journal of Health & Business Analytics (IJHBA) the right of first publication.
